Browsing tag: Enterobacteriaceae

MECHANIZMY OPORNOŚCI NA FLUOROCHINOLONY KODOWANE PLAZMIDOWO – PMQR

Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance – PMQR
K. Piekarska

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Streszczenie: Fluorochinolony (FQ) to grupa syntetycznych chemioterapeutyków o właściwościach bakteriobójczych i szerokim spektrum aktywności, powszechnie stosowanych w terapii wielu zakażeń u ludzi i zwierząt. W ostatnich latach, wśród pałeczek Enterobacteriaceae obserwowany jest wyraźny wzrost oporności na te związki. Miejscem docelowego działania FQ są dwa enzymy bakteryjne: gyraza (topoizomeraza II) i topoizomeraza IV, które odgrywają zasadniczą rolę podczas replikacji, transkrypcji, rekombinacji i naprawy bakteryjnego DNA. Istnieją dwie kategorie mechanizmów warunkujących oporność na FQ, tj. chromosomowe i nabyte. Mutacje w chromosomowych genach kodujących gyrazę i topoizomerazę IV są najczęstszymi mechanizmami odpowiedzialnymi za wysoki poziom oporność na FQ. Mutacje występują również w genach regulatorowych kontrolujących ekspresję natywnych pomp zlokalizowanych w błonie bakteryjnej. W ostatnich dwóch dekadach odkryto trzy mechanizmy oporności na chinolony kodowane plazmidowo (PMQR), w tym: białka Qnr, wariant acylotransferazy aminoglikozydowej – AAC (6‚) – Ib-cr i pompy błonowe – QepA i OqxAB. Chociaż same mechanizmy PMQR powodują jedynie niski poziom oporności na FQ, swoją aktywnością sprzyjają skutecznej selekcji mutacji w genach gyrazy i topoizomerazy IV i nabywaniu przez szczep bakteryjny wysokiej oporności na FQ. Ponadto, mechanizmy PMQR często występują w plazmidach MDR wraz z innymi determinantami oporności (ESBL, pAmpC, KPC), co sprzyja rozpowszechnianiu fenotypu wielolekooporności. W pracy, podjęto próbę dokonania przeglądu molekularnych mechanizmów leżących u podstaw oporności na fluorochinolony występującej u pałeczek Enterobacteriaceae.

1. Wstęp. 2. Mechanizm działania fluorochinolonów. 3. Oporność na fluorochinolony kodowana chromosomowo. 3.1. Mutacje prowadzące do zmiany aktywności enzymów docelowych. 3.2. Redukcja stężenia leku w cytoplazmie – pompy błonowe. 4. Oporność na fluorochinolony kodowana plazmidowo. 4.1. Białka Qnr. 4.2. Enzym AAC(6’)-Ib-cr. 4.3. Pompy kodowane plazmidowo: QepA i OqxAB. 4.4. Wpływ PMQR na poziom oporności. 5. Podsumowanie

Abstract: Fluoroquinolones (FQ) are broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents widely used to treat a range of infections in clinical medicine. However, the surveillance studies demonstrate that fluoroquinolone resistance rates increased in Enterobacteriaceae in the past years. FQ inhibit bacterial DNA synthesis by interfering with the action of two bacterial enzymes – DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV. There are two categories of quinolone resistance mechanisms: chromosomally encoded and acquired. Mutations in chromosomal genes encoding gyrase and topoisomerase IV are the most common mechanisms responsible for high-level fluoroquinolone resistance. Mutations can occur also in regulatory genes which control the expression of native efflux pumps located in bacterial membrane. Furthermore, three mechanisms of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) have been discovered so far, including Qnr proteins, the aminoglycoside acetylotransferase variant – AAC(6’)-Ib-cr, and plasmid-mediated efflux pumps – QepA and OqxAB. Although the PMQR mechanisms alone cause only low-level resistance to fluoroquinolone, they can complement other mechanisms of chromosomal resistance and facilitate the selection of higher-level resistance. Moreover, plasmids with PMQR mechanisms often encode additional resistance traits (ESBLs, pAmpC, KPC) contributing to multidrug resistance (MDR). This review is focused on a range of molecular mechanisms which underlie quinolone resistance.

1. Introduction. 2. Mechanisms of fluoroquinolone action. 3. Chromosomally-encoded fluoroquinolone resistance. 3.1. Mutations changing the functions of target enzymes. 3.2. Reduction of drug concentration in the cytoplasm – efflux pump. 4. Plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance. 4.1. Qnr proteins. 4.2. AAC(6’)-Ib-cr enzyme. 4.3. Plasmid-mediated efflux pump: QepA i OqxAB. 4.4. The impact of PMQR on fluoroquinolone susceptibility level. 5. Summary

ZMIANY W TAKSONOMII γ-PROTEOBACTERIA, MODYFIKACJA NAZWY RZĘDU ENTEROBACTERIALES I NOWE RODZINY W OBRĘBIE ENTEROBACTERALES ORD. NOV.

Changes in the taxonomy of γ-Proteobacteria, modification of the order Enterobacteriales and novel families within Enterobacteriales ord. nov.
Paweł Nawrotek, Bartłomiej Grygorcewicz, Adrian Augustyniak

1. Wstęp. 2. Zasady dotyczące wprowadzania zmian taksonomicznych. 3. Przesłanki wprowadzania zmian taksonomicznych. 4. Zmiany w rzędzie Enterobacterales ord. nov. 5. Bazy danych a zmiany w taksonomii rzędu Enterobacterales ord. nov. 6. Podsumowanie

Abstract: Prokaryotic diversity increases every year with each new described species. Since the first discoveries of microorganisms, researchers’ endeavours are dedicated to the systematisation of all known living organisms in a consistent taxonomy. Originally based on morphology, in recent years modern taxonomy develops thanks to the implemenation of new discoveries in the fields of biochemistry and genetics. In the last thirty years, ribotyping was the leading technique used to classify microorganisms. Due to problems with the comparison of certain species, novel methods based on the analysis of proteins have been applied. In-depth analysis of Enterobacteriaceae family showed that its members are more dissimilar than previously thought, which eventually led to dividing this family into seven families and resulted in a change to the name of the order: from Enterobacteriales to Enterobacterales. These changes were applied in some biggest accessible databases. However, there are still many other which have not modified their taxonomy records to date. Such situation may lead to unnecessary confusion, which strengthens the necessity to create one, unified taxonomy which is approved by the whole scientific community.

1. Introduction. 2. Principles regarding the introduction of taxonomical changes. 3. Justification of taxonomical changes. 4. Modifications in the order Enterobacterales ord. nov. 5. Databases and changes in the taxonomy of the order Enterobacterales ord. nov. 6. Summary

Oporność bakterii z rodziny Enterobacteriaceae na antybiotyki β-laktamowe wynikająca z wytwarzania β-laktamaz

β-Lactamase-mediated resistance in Enterobacteriaceae
E. Nikonorow, A. Baraniak, M. Gniadkowski

1. Wprowadzenie. 2. Mechanizmy oporności bakterii na antybiotyki β-laktamowe. 3. Klasyfikacja β-laktamaz. 4. β-Laktamazy gatunkowo-specyficzne. 5. β-Laktamazy nabyte. 6. Ekspresja β-laktamaz. 7. Najważniejsze grupy β-laktamaz nabytych. 7.1. β-Laktamazy o rozszerzonym spektrum substratowym, ESBL. 7.2. Cefalosporynazy AmpC. 7.3. Karbapenemazy. 7.3.1. Karbapenemazy klasy A 7.3.2. Karbapenemazy klasy B. 7.3.3. Karbapenemazy klasy D. 8. Podsumowanie

Abstract: Production is β-Lactamase the major mechanism of resistance to β-lactams in Gram-negative bacteria. In recent years, resistance due to production of β-lactamases has been increasing at on alarming rate. It refers mostly to extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) that are the main problem in microorganisms of the family Enterobacteriaceae, conferring resistance to all penicillins, cephalosporins (except for cephamycins) and monobactams. Acquired cephalosporinases of the AmpC type also have become a significant factor of enterobacterial resistance to newer generation of β-lactams. The effect of AmpCs is largely strengthened by this mutational overexpression in such pathogens as Enterobacter spp. or Citrobacter freundii. β-Lactamase-mediated resistance to carbapenems in the members of the family Enterobacteriaceae has become a matter of highest concern over the last decade. It has been associated with various carbapenemhydrolyzing enzymes, including the so-called KPC, MBL or OXA-48 types. Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria has been a key issue in public health, requiring constant monitoring at the hospital, country and global level.

1. Introduction. 2. Mechanisms of resistance to β-lactam antibiotics. 3. Classification of β-lactamases. 4. Natural β-lactamases. 5. Acquired β-lactamases. 6. Expression of β-lactamases. 7. Main groups of the acquired β-lactamases. 7.1. Extended-spectrum β-lactamases, ESBLs. 7.2. AmpC-type cephalosporinases. 7.3. Carbapenemases. 7.3.1. Class A carbapenemases. 7.3.2. Class  B
carbapenemases. 7.3.3. Class D carbapenemases. 8. Conclusions

ECA – wspólny antygen powierzchniowy pałeczek rodziny Enterobacteriaceae

ECA – common surface antigen of the bacilli of the Enterobacteriaceae family
K. Kasperkiewicz, M. Noszczyńska, A. Piszczek

1. Historia odkrycia. 2. Występowanie. 3. Charakterystyka chemiczna. 4. Formy ECA. 5. Biosynteza i jej kontrola genetyczna. 6. Właściwości immunogenne. 7. Lokalizacja ECA w komórce bakteryjnej i sposoby jego detekcji. 8. Rola biologiczna. 9. Zastosowanie. 10. Podsumowanie

Abstract: Almost all the strains of bacteria belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family share at least one common antigenic component, ECA, which is not present in other Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. From the observations made with immunofluorescence and immunoferritin techniques, it has been concluded that ECA is localized in the outer leaflet of the outer membrane of Gram-negative enteric bacteria. ECA is a glycolipid consisting of linear trisaccharide repeating units composed of [→3)-α-D-Fucp4NAc-(1→4)-β-D-ManpNAcA-(1→4)-α-D-GlcpNAc-(1→]. It occurs in three structural forms: ECAPG linked to phosphatidylglycerol, ECALPS anchored to LPS core region and ECACYC not expressed on the surface. ECA is believed to be connected to the LPS outer core. However, it should be emphasized that Yersinia enterocolitica serotype O:3 mutants defective in outer core synthesis were also ECA-immunogenic. The genes involved in ECA biosynthesis are located in the chromosomal wec gene cluster, from wecA to wecG and the ECA expressions is downregulated at host temperature. So far, ECA has been thoroughly analyzed at the structural and genetic level, however, its significance in vivo has been investigated in relatively few studies. ECA has been linked to pathogenesis in several species of bacteria, although this function seems to differ between the species. ECA has been shown to be involved in the flagellar assembly and motility in Serratia marcescens. Also, the ECA-negative mutants of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium proved to be significantly less virulent than the parental strain. ECA as a marker of Enterobacteriaceae family is a valuable indicator of water and food contaminations with enteric bacteria.

1. Discovery history. 2. Occurrence. 3. Chemical characterization. 4. Forms of ECA. 5. Genetics of ECA biosynthesis. 6. The immunogenic properties. 7. Localization of ECA in the bacterial cell and methods of its detection. 8. Biological significance. 9. Application. 10. Summary